THE MIND-BODY PROBLEM

RELATED QUESTIONS:
·         Critically discuss the mind-body problem and the theories of relationship.
·         The mind-body problem has set philosophers apart. Discuss this problem in relation to; (a) schools of thought (b) theories of relationship.


INTRODUCTION
          The philosophy of mind is the branch of metaphysics that studies the nature of mind; what it is that makes us conscious beings. The central question in the field is whether the mind is material or immaterial; are we merely physical beings, or something more? This metaphysical problem is known as the mind-body dualism. Do we have immaterial souls that animate our bodies, or are we merely electrical activity in an organic brain? Some schools of thought and theories of relationship have presented their views on the mind–body dualism problem. This write-up aims at evaluating these issues.
 
 
THE PHILOSOPHY OF MIND
          Philosophy as a discipline has several branches of which the infrastructure of discipline is a part. The philosophy of mind is one of the numerous infrastructures of disciplines directly under metaphysics and epistemology as a sub-branch. The philosophy of mind studies the nature of the human mind, mental events, functions and properties, consciousness and their relationship to the physical human body; especially the brain. The mind-body problem which entails the question of how the mind interacts with the body is basically taken to be the core issue in the philosophy of mind. Nevertheless, there are still other issues concerning the nature of the mind that do not entail relation to the physical body.
 
 
THE PROBLEM OF MIND-BODY DUALISM
          The problem of mind-body dualism, concerns the explanation of the relationship that exists between minds or mental processes, as well as bodily states or processes. The main aim which philosophers of mind set out to accomplish is to determine the nature of mind, mental states and how minds are affected by the body. For example, our experiences of perception depend upon the stimuli from the external world which are received by our sense organs. These stimuli cause changes in our mental states and these make us feel a sensation which could be pleasant or unpleasant. In connection, our responses would vary according to the sensations we feel as processed by the mind (brain). Therefore, there is the perennial question of “how is it made for a conscious experience to arise out of some matter (the brain) which possesses electrochemical properties? The mind-body problem has caused a lot of disagreements amongst philosophers of mind. However, this problem of the mind-body dualism is far from having been resolved, and modern philosophers of mind continue to ask how the subjective qualities and the intentionality of mental states and properties can be explained in materialistic terms.
 
 
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT ADRESSING THE MIND-BODY PROBLEM
          Dualism and monism are the two major schools of thought that attempt to resolve the mind-body problem. These schools of thought are the foundation on resolving the mind-body dualism problem, and some of them are evaluated below;
·        Substance Dualism
Substance dualism is well-established among non-philosophers. It is the view that there are two fundamentally different types of substance; physical and non-physical, and that human beings are made up of two components - physical bodies and non-physical minds. This theory has many attractions, but is now seen by many, rightly or wrongly, as old-fashioned and naive.
 
·        Substance Monism
In opposition to substance dualism is substance monism; the view that there is no distinction between the mental and physical realms, that everything is fundamentally the same. Although it is possible to argue that everything is mental as idealism does, it is much more common to hold that everything is physical, to endorse “physicalism” or “materialism”.
 
·        Property Dualism
There is, however, another option; property dualism. Property dualism is substance monist; it agrees with materialism that there are only physical substances. However, it concedes to the dualist that these substances have both physical and non-physical properties, and that the non-physical properties cannot be fully explained in purely physical terms. Although this position is intended to capture the best elements of both positions, it arguably ends up with the liabilities of both as well.
 
·        Anomalous Monism
Anomalous Monism is a theory of the relationship between mental and physical events and properties developed by Donald Davidson. It holds that every causally interacting mental event is identical to some physical event i.e. particular mental events (tokens) are the very same events as particular physical events (token-identity, or monism). But it also claims that there can be no strict laws on the basis of which any mental event-type can predict, explain, be predicted or be explained; therefore, mental properties cannot be reduced to physical properties.
 
 
THEORIES OF RELATIONSHIP ADRESSING THE MIND-BODY PROBLEM
          Regarding the mind-body dualism controversy, various philosophical theories of relationships have sprung up over the ages. Some seem to be archaic while some seem to be quite advanced. Also, each of them is either dualist or monist in approach. Although, a consensus has not been reached, these various ideas represent the perennial efforts of philosophers and scholars on resolving the mind-body dualism problem. Some of these are evaluated below;
·        Interactionism
Interactionism is also known as interactionist dualism. It is the view that mental states such as beliefs and desires causally interact with physical states. The major defenders of this view are Karl popper and John Carew Eccles. The underlying principle of interactionism is the idea that even though the mind and body are distinct, they nevertheless interact and the connection between them is that of cause and effect. In other words, the mind can act upon the body, just as the body can act upon the mind.
 
·        Epiphenomenalism
Epiphenomenalism is also called “type-E dualism”. It is a view that mental states do not have the capacity to influence physical states. A major exponent of this theory is Thomas Henry Huxley. This view perceives mental states and activities as mere epiphenomena (side effects or by-products of physical processes in the body). Therefore, the mind cannot control the body. However, the case is not the same for the body or physical states. Epiphenomenalism holds that physical events can influence both other physical and mental events. But, mental events cannot cause anything as they are mere epiphenomena of the physical world.
 
·        Parallelism
Parallelism is also known as psychological parallelism. A proponent of this view is Nicholas Malebranche. It is the view that mind and body have clearly different ontological natures. Accordingly, they do not causally influence one another as they are not of the same substance. Like epiphenomenalism, it agrees that the mind cannot control the body. It however takes the argument further by postulating that the body as well cannot control he mind. Thus, parallelism conclusively holds that the mind and body run along parallel paths as they do not influence each other.  In essence, mind events causally interact with other mind events and physical events also likewise interacts with other physical events. Like two sides of a coin, the mind and body never meet. This theory was an influence on the theory of Occasionalism.
 
·        Occasionalism
Occasionalism is a philosophical theory of causation which holds that created substances cannot be the efficient (active) causes of events, whether ideal or physical. Instead, all events are taken to be caused directly by God. The rational nature of God implies that he causes things to occur in a particular sequence, which makes perfect correlation between things. These events are seen as laws of nature but these are not just natural laws. Instead, they are laws via which God chooses to govern the autonomy of things by virtue of his rational will. Therefore, the relationship between mind and body is not influenced by anything but the will of God.
 
·        Double-aspect theory
The double-aspect theory is the view that the mental and physical entities, the mind and the body are simply two aspects of the same substance. In essence, our mental states are our private or inner nature while our bodily states are the publicly observable or outer nature of the same phenomena- the human being. Baruch Spinoza and Arthur Schopenhauer are some exponents of this theory. Spinoza specifically holds that mind and matter are merely two aspects of an infinite number of modes of a single existing substance which he identifies as God.
 
·        Physicalism
Physicalism is the thesis that everything is physical or as contemporary philosophers sometimes put it, that everything supervenes on, or is necessitated by, the physical. The thesis is usually intended as a metaphysical thesis, parallel to the thesis attributed to the ancient Greek philosopher Thales, that everything is water, or the idealism of the 18th Century philosopher Berkeley, that everything is mental. The general idea is that the nature of the actual world (i.e. the universe and everything in it) conforms to a certain condition, the condition of being physical. Of course, physicalists don't deny that the world might contain many items that at first glance don't seem physical, like items of a biological, psychological, moral or social nature. But they insist nevertheless that at the end of the day such items are either physical or supervene on the physical.
 
 
CONCLUSION
        The Philosophy of Mind is a relatively recent field that deals with questions of consciousness and how it interacts with both the body and the outside world. The Philosophy of Mind asks not only what mental phenomena are and what gives rise to them, but also what relationship they have to the larger physical body and the world around us. However plain the mind-body dualism problem may seem, it is of a perennial nature. Hence, proposed solutions and positions to it are never conclusive.
 
 

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